The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs

Wagura Peter Waithaka

doi:doi:10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs

Wagura Peter Waithaka^*

Published in Innovation Management (Volume 1, Issue 1)

Received: 1 October 2025 Accepted: 15 October 2025 Published: 27 January 2026

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Abstract

This paper provides a critical analysis of the profound social costs borne by semi-skilled and unskilled migrant laborers, a demographic often reduced to economic units in mainstream discourse. Moving beyond a narrow economistic perspective that prioritizes remittance flows, this study synthesizes sociological theory and empirical evidence to examine the human consequences of labor migration. It argues that the prevailing neoliberal migration regime is structured to create a disposable workforce, systematically externalizing social costs onto the workers, their families, and their communities of origin. The analysis dissects the multifaceted nature of these costs, including the disintegration of transnational family structures and the associated psychological impacts on children and spouses. It further explores the erosion of cultural identity and the experience of systemic exploitation, framed through theoretical lenses of precarity, structural violence, and social death. The paper details the severe physical and mental health toll exacerbated by legal precarity and lack of access to care, and it critiques the paradox of remittances, which often undermine long-term development in sending countries. Finally, the challenges of reverse culture shock and failed reintegration are examined. The paper concludes by advocating for a fundamental paradigm shift towards a more equitable and humane migration governance, outlining multi-scalar policy recommendations targeting international frameworks, host and sending country legislation, and grassroots empowerment to uphold migrant rights and dignity.

Published in	Innovation Management (Volume 1, Issue 1)
DOI	10.11648/j.im.20260101.11
Page(s)	1-10
Creative Commons	This is an Open Access article, distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, provided the original work is properly cited.
Copyright	Copyright © The Author(s), 2026. Published by Science Publishing Group

Keywords

Labour Migration, Social Costs, Exploitation, Mental Health, Remittances, Transnational Families, Precarity, Structural Violence

References

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[12]	Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5-34.
[13]	Portes, A., & Rumbaut, R. G. (2001). Legacies: The story of the immigrant second generation. University of California Press.
[14]	Human Rights Watch. (2020). "I was sold": Abuse and exploitation of migrant domestic workers in the United Arab Emirates. https://www.hrw.org/report/2020/09/24/i-was-sold/abuse-and-exploitation-migrant-domestic-workers-united-arab-emirates.
[15]	Amnesty International. (2019). All work, no pay: The struggle of Qatar's migrant workers for justice. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/08/all-work-no-pay-the-struggle-of-qatars-migrant-workers-for-justice/
[16]	Amnesty International. (2022). Saudi Arabia: A year of "reforms" fails to deliver for migrant workers. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2022/03/saudi-arabia-a-year-of-reforms-fails-to-deliver-for-migrant-workers/
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[19]	De Genova, N. P. (2002). Migrant "illegality" and deportability in everyday life. Annual Review of Anthropology, 31(1), 419-447.
[20]	Chen, W., Hall, B. J., Ling, L., & Renzaho, A. M. N. (2017). Pre-migration and post-migration factors associated with mental health in humanitarian migrants in Australia and the moderation effect of post-migration stressors. Journal of Affective Disorders, 217, 86-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.03.070
[21]	Kaphle, S., Gavidia, T., & Sathian, B. (2021). Prevalence of Depression and its Associated Factors among Nepalese Migrant Workers in Malaysia. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 67(5), 435-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020764020954466
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APA Style

Waithaka, W. P. (2026). The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innovation Management, 1(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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Waithaka, W. P. The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innov. Manag. 2026, 1(1), 1-10. doi: 10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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AMA Style

Waithaka WP. The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innov Manag. 2026;1(1):1-10. doi: 10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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@article{10.11648/j.im.20260101.11,
  author = {Wagura Peter Waithaka},
  title = {The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs},
  journal = {Innovation Management},
  volume = {1},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-10},
  doi = {10.11648/j.im.20260101.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.im.20260101.11},
  abstract = {This paper provides a critical analysis of the profound social costs borne by semi-skilled and unskilled migrant laborers, a demographic often reduced to economic units in mainstream discourse. Moving beyond a narrow economistic perspective that prioritizes remittance flows, this study synthesizes sociological theory and empirical evidence to examine the human consequences of labor migration. It argues that the prevailing neoliberal migration regime is structured to create a disposable workforce, systematically externalizing social costs onto the workers, their families, and their communities of origin. The analysis dissects the multifaceted nature of these costs, including the disintegration of transnational family structures and the associated psychological impacts on children and spouses. It further explores the erosion of cultural identity and the experience of systemic exploitation, framed through theoretical lenses of precarity, structural violence, and social death. The paper details the severe physical and mental health toll exacerbated by legal precarity and lack of access to care, and it critiques the paradox of remittances, which often undermine long-term development in sending countries. Finally, the challenges of reverse culture shock and failed reintegration are examined. The paper concludes by advocating for a fundamental paradigm shift towards a more equitable and humane migration governance, outlining multi-scalar policy recommendations targeting international frameworks, host and sending country legislation, and grassroots empowerment to uphold migrant rights and dignity.},
 year = {2026}
}

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T1  - The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs
AU  - Wagura Peter Waithaka
Y1  - 2026/01/27
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VL  - 1
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Wagura Peter Waithaka

Orion Management and Resource Services (OMRS), Nairobi, Kenya

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APA Style

Waithaka, W. P. (2026). The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innovation Management, 1(1), 1-10. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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ACS Style

Waithaka, W. P. The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innov. Manag. 2026, 1(1), 1-10. doi: 10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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AMA Style

Waithaka WP. The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs. Innov Manag. 2026;1(1):1-10. doi: 10.11648/j.im.20260101.11

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@article{10.11648/j.im.20260101.11,
  author = {Wagura Peter Waithaka},
  title = {The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs},
  journal = {Innovation Management},
  volume = {1},
  number = {1},
  pages = {1-10},
  doi = {10.11648/j.im.20260101.11},
  url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11},
  eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.im.20260101.11},
  abstract = {This paper provides a critical analysis of the profound social costs borne by semi-skilled and unskilled migrant laborers, a demographic often reduced to economic units in mainstream discourse. Moving beyond a narrow economistic perspective that prioritizes remittance flows, this study synthesizes sociological theory and empirical evidence to examine the human consequences of labor migration. It argues that the prevailing neoliberal migration regime is structured to create a disposable workforce, systematically externalizing social costs onto the workers, their families, and their communities of origin. The analysis dissects the multifaceted nature of these costs, including the disintegration of transnational family structures and the associated psychological impacts on children and spouses. It further explores the erosion of cultural identity and the experience of systemic exploitation, framed through theoretical lenses of precarity, structural violence, and social death. The paper details the severe physical and mental health toll exacerbated by legal precarity and lack of access to care, and it critiques the paradox of remittances, which often undermine long-term development in sending countries. Finally, the challenges of reverse culture shock and failed reintegration are examined. The paper concludes by advocating for a fundamental paradigm shift towards a more equitable and humane migration governance, outlining multi-scalar policy recommendations targeting international frameworks, host and sending country legislation, and grassroots empowerment to uphold migrant rights and dignity.},
 year = {2026}
}

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TY  - JOUR
T1  - The Social Costs of Working Abroad as a Non-Professional — An Examination of Semi-Skilled and Unskilled Migrant Labourers in Low-Paid Jobs
AU  - Wagura Peter Waithaka
Y1  - 2026/01/27
PY  - 2026
N1  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11
DO  - 10.11648/j.im.20260101.11
T2  - Innovation Management
JF  - Innovation Management
JO  - Innovation Management
SP  - 1
EP  - 10
PB  - Science Publishing Group
UR  - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.im.20260101.11
AB  - This paper provides a critical analysis of the profound social costs borne by semi-skilled and unskilled migrant laborers, a demographic often reduced to economic units in mainstream discourse. Moving beyond a narrow economistic perspective that prioritizes remittance flows, this study synthesizes sociological theory and empirical evidence to examine the human consequences of labor migration. It argues that the prevailing neoliberal migration regime is structured to create a disposable workforce, systematically externalizing social costs onto the workers, their families, and their communities of origin. The analysis dissects the multifaceted nature of these costs, including the disintegration of transnational family structures and the associated psychological impacts on children and spouses. It further explores the erosion of cultural identity and the experience of systemic exploitation, framed through theoretical lenses of precarity, structural violence, and social death. The paper details the severe physical and mental health toll exacerbated by legal precarity and lack of access to care, and it critiques the paradox of remittances, which often undermine long-term development in sending countries. Finally, the challenges of reverse culture shock and failed reintegration are examined. The paper concludes by advocating for a fundamental paradigm shift towards a more equitable and humane migration governance, outlining multi-scalar policy recommendations targeting international frameworks, host and sending country legislation, and grassroots empowerment to uphold migrant rights and dignity.
VL  - 1
IS  - 1
ER  -

Copy | Download